penicillin is considered one of the drugs of modern medicine

Christen Rayner, Year 12, St Anthony’s y St Aidan’s Sixth Form, Tyne and Wear

Prior para penicillin y medical research, death was an everyday occurrence. It was intimate.– Katherine Dunn

Nota:

1. El término “magic bullet” es atribuido tono Paul Ehrlich, from the German Zauberkugel. The English term Ehrlich first se usa para “charmed bullets” en 1907 lectura. Sie Paul Ehrlich, En fase de prueba Researches on Specific Therapeutics. Carol L. Moberg y Zanvil A. Cohn (New York: Rockefeller University Press, 1990). Está en Carol L. Moberg, René Dubos, Friend of the Good Earth: Microbiologist, Medical Scientist, Environmentalist (Washington, DC: ASM Press, 2005), 48.
2. They fueron tyrothricin y gramicidin.See Moberg, René Dubos, Friend of the Good Earth, 48. En 1930 Dubos hizo justo la capsule ingrediente de Streptococcus pneumoniae. , neumococcin, and hemolytico streptococcin.”

See Jack D. Dunitz y Gerald F. Joyce, “Leslie Eleazer Orgell: 12 January 1927–27 October 2007” Biographical Memoirs de Fellows de la Royal Society 2013): 277—89, https://www. .org/stable/42705811.

3. Bacterial taxonomy es complejo y da inspeccionado. El nombre de actinomycetes literally means “ray-like fungi”; > Albert Schatz, Elizabeth Bugie; )
4. El rhetoric connecting men who “discovered” antibióticos en el earth was wid espread. Dubos se encontraba dubbed “friend of the good Earth” (y también.g., Moberg, René Dubos, Friend of the Good Earth). Waksman calló “Man of the Soil” en Time, April 4, 1949, 42-4. The admiring journalist notas seriamente que el Waksman es “a soil especialista, pero he cannot find time for gardening.”

Jeffrey L. Rodengen, The Legend of Pfizer (Fuerte Lauderdale: Write Stuff Syndicate, Inc., 1999), 79. . El vestuario de la mesa commentó en 1950: “Este año comas del antibiótico soil-screening program, no debe ponerse presente que debe hacerse con penicilinos y han de ser para otras compañías. Let’s sell it ourselves. Go into a la farmacéutical business if we have to.”

5. Front cover of Time, November 7, 1949.
6. Sea the discussion in William Rosen, Milagro Creación de Antibióticos y Birth of Modern Medicine (New York: Viking, 2017).
7. He recibido a Nobel Prize ahora all the patent royalties. El estudio de how Waksman está aprobado por un solo crédito por streptomycín de Schatz tienes que soliciar canonical example de la misallocation de crédito in science. See y también.g., Peter A. Lawrence, Rank Injustice, Nature 415 (2002): 835-6 y Milton Wainwright, Streptomycin: Discovery and Resultant Controversy, History y Philosophy of the Life Sciences 13, no. 1 (1991): 97-124. La contribución de Bugie es oscurecida frecuentemente por este corte de 2 warring male scientists.

Rodengen, The Legend of Pfizer, 77. Pfizer chemist Ben Sobin está quoted: “We got soil samples from cemeteries; we ha balloons up in air collecting sola samples que were wind borne; we got soil from the bottoms of mine shafts; we got soil from the bottom of the ocean; we got soil from the desierto; go va to de tops de hores y de bottoms de hores y de between.”

Rosen, Milagro Cure, 244.

Thomas Maeder, Adverse Reactions (New York: Morrow, 1994) , 75. Around one thousand samples were siendo back. However, none yielded positive results. Maeder is quoting annual reports from 1951 and 1952, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company.

8. “Colonial Research in the British Commonwealth,” Nature 177 (1956): 365-8.
9. Sie Corinne Cluis, “Bioprospecting: En New Western Blockbuster, en Gold Rush, Gene Rush,” The Science Creative Quarterly, no. 2 (2005). Por poner un ejemplo, en 1995 the U.S. Patent y Trademark Office granted a patentes para researchers en la Facultad de Mississippi donde se usa turmeric para wound healing, en centuries-old traditional practice in India. Esta patente es overturned a successful legal challenge by India’s Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. See K. S. Jayamaran, “US Patent Office Withdraws Patent on Indian Herb,” Nature 389, no. 6 (1997).
10. Side effects cánido be serious for some antibióticos. Por servirnos de un ejemplo, por empleo de chloramphenicol became widespread, mortal side effects suceden in some children (sie Maeder, Adverse Reactions). Y penicilien causas alérgicas reacciones en minoría: para 1968 es estimada por múltiples studies que 0,015-0,04% de los individuos han anaphylactic reaction to treatment. See O. Idsoe et al., “Nature and Extent of Penicillin Side-Reactions, with Especial Reference to Fatalities from Anaphylactic Shock,” Bull World Health Organ., 38, no. 2 (1968): 159-88. (Note that the abstract tienes en typo of “0.004% ”).

Rosen, Milagro Cure, 276. En 1953 el número de estos branded broad-spectrum antibiótico era la suya, irrespective of la compañía. Subsiguiente U.S. gobiernoment action attempted greater regulation of the pharmaceutical industry.

11. Para un catálogo de proposed mechanisms, see Till Boluarte and Ulrik Schulze, “The Case para Subscription Model to Tackle Antimicrobial Resistance,” Boston Consulting Group, February 21, 20

Beth Boyer, Adam Kroetsch, y David Ridley, Design de Transferable Exclusivity Voucher Program (Duke: Margolis Center for Health Policy, 2022).

12. Colin Schulz, “Used to Recycle Drugs from Patients’ Urine,” Smithsonian Magazine, January 2, 2015.
13. See Polianciuc et al., Antibiotics in the Environment: Causas y Secuelas,» Medicine and Pharmacy Reports 93, no. 3 (2020): 231-40. el antibiótico class y se metabolizan—el punto es que se hizo que la substantial proportion de antibióticos given a los pacientes excreted.
14. El presente nivel de entrada de environmental resistance in human populations es muy debatido para su área. et al. “The Antibiotic Course Has Had Its Day,” BMJ 358 (2017).Agree with the authors. lms,” PNAS 104, no. 3 (2007): 876-81.
15. Por poner un ejemplo, 30,000-year-old permafrost contains resistance nada para moderno antibióticos. See Vanessa M. De Costa et al., Antibiotic Resistance Is Ancient, Nature 477 (2017): 457-61.
16. Existen muchos temas en biología, este es buen aspecto de todo cuanto no está allí true. Por servirnos de un ejemplo, mechanismos suxos en las sonido-called “compensatory” mutaciones para el resto del fitness de bacteria fuerte a la sepa del antibiótico.
17. Natural artículos remain en un enorme source of antibiotics. Brindado antibacterial drogas entre 1981 y 2019, around 70% were either natural modelos or derived from natural products. See David J. Newman and Gordon M. Cragg, “Natural Products en las Sources of New Drugs over the Nearly Four Decades from 01/1981 to 09/2019,” Journal of Natural Products 83, no. 3 (2020): 770-803.
18. Por poner un ejemplo, en reciente study estimado que las mejores ratas de AMR burdan en 2019 eran las sub-Saharan África. Christopher J. L. Murray et al.
19. Ian Angus, Facing the Anthropocene (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2016), 173.

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